On Target: 

Strategies to Help 
Readers Make Meaning 
through Inferences 

Grades 4 - 12 
Grades 4 - 12Grades 4 - 12Grades 4 - 12Grades 4 - 12Grades 4 - 12 


ESA Regions 6 & 7 



Dear Educator: 

A
A
s proficient readers, it is sometimes easy to forget that the process of reading is an active 
one requiring us to make meaning as we go along. Most of us have been reading for 
so longbe it reading for pleasure or reading for learningthat we sometimes forget how far 
beyond the written page our reading goes. One of the most difficult skills young readers need 
to learn is the skill to read what doesnt appear in black and white on the written page. In other 
words, the skill to infer. In order to infer meaning, readers must combine the information that the 
author has written with their own experiencesboth reading experiences and life experiences. 

Not only is the process of making inferences difficult for a beginner, the process of teaching 
students to make inferences is not an easy one. And, like so many good reading habits, it doesnt 
come naturally for most of our students. The process has to be explicitly taught to students, 
modeled for students, practiced by students. Eventually, making inferences will become a habit 
of mind that students will participate in without hesitation. 

On Target: Strategies to Help Readers Make Meaning through Inferences, focuses on strategies 
that teachers can use to help students hone their skills at making inferences. The strategies are 
ones that teachers say work well in their classrooms. They are strategies that are supported by 
research and best practice in classrooms. 

This booklet is the fourth booklet in the On Target series compiled by South Dakotas Education 
Service Agencies 6 and 7 with support from the South Dakota Department of Education. The 
three previously published booklets are On Target: Reading Strategies to Guide Learning, On 
Target: Strategies to Improve Student Test Scores, and On Target: Strategies to Help Struggling 
Readers. 

June Preszler, Education Specialist 
SD Education Service Agency, Black Hills Region 7 

2 



Table of Contents 
Table of ContentsTable of ContentsTable of ContentsTable of ContentsTable of Contents

Thinking about Inferences ..................................................................................... 4 
Traditional Cloze Technique ................................................................................. 5 
Picture Book Inferences ......................................................................................... 6 
Picture Book Inferences Chart .............................................................................. 7 
30 Childrens Books for Making Inferences ........................................................ 8 
Inferring Feelings Game ......................................................................................... 9 
Pairs Read: Read to Analyze ............................................................................... 10 
Asking Inferential Questions: Solving the Mystery........................................... 11 
Five-Minute Skill Builders .................................................................................. 12 
Inferences That Skilled Readers Make............................................................... 13 
Show but Dont Tell ............................................................................................. 14 
Show but Dont Tell Template ............................................................................ 15 
Observe to Infer .................................................................................................... 16 
Observe to Infer Template ................................................................................... 17 
Making Inferences with Figurative Language..................................................... 18 
Making Inferences with Figurative Language (cont.) ........................................ 19 
Inference Chart ..................................................................................................... 20 
Inference Chart Template ..................................................................................... 21 
It Says. . .I Say. . .And So ................................................................................... 22 
It Says Template ................................................................................................... 23 
Questioning the Author (QtA) ............................................................................. 24 
Questioning the Author Template ....................................................................... 25 
Inference through Advertising.............................................................................. 26 
Inference through Advertising Template ............................................................. 27 
Connections to Previous On Target Books ........................................................ 28 
Websites to Explore ............................................................................................. 29 
Books for Further Reading .................................................................................. 30 
Books for Further Reading (cont.) ...................................................................... 31 


Editorial Credits 
Editorial CreditsEditorial CreditsEditorial CreditsEditorial CreditsEditorial Credits 

June Preszler, editor; Josephine Hartmann, contributing editor; 
Gloria Gunn, designer; Michelle Mehlberg, content consultant 


The On Target strategy booklets are created by ESA 6 & 7 with support from the 
South Dakota Department of Education 


Copyright 2006: Black Hills Special Service Cooperative (BHSSC) 
1925 Plaza Boulevard, Rapid City, SD 57702 


BHSSC grants teachers permission to photocopy material for personal classroom use. 

3 



Thinking about Inferences 
Thinking about InferencesThinking about InferencesThinking about InferencesThinking about InferencesThinking about Inferences

I
I
nferential thinking is often called reading between the lines. Its like mathematics in a way, 
because the answer is not given in an arithmetic problem. One has to figure out the correct answer 
from the information that is given. Inferring in reading  and in life itself  is figuring out answers from 
the facts to which we have access. 

In discussing inferences, a friend noted that most of the misunderstandings in the history of the 
world could probably be attributed to faulty inferences. This underscored for me, at least, the fact that 
the background information and inferential skill that the reader brings to the page determine the meaning 
of any communication the author intended. Our lives certainly move with greater ease if we read 
our day-to-day existence as well as we read text. If my grandsons lips are quivering, it signals me to 
give him a big hug. If my boss looks grumpy, it may not be the best day to discuss a new project I have in 
mind. 

When we approach inferential thinking with students, we might start from the point of reading 
people. I could pretend to look terrified and ask them what they think my facial expression and gestures 
mean. They would be inferring my emotions correctly if they conclude that Im frightened or scared of 
something. Inferring from communication, whether digital, print, or spoken is about reading text, body 
language, verbal expression, faces, tone of voice. . .one could go on an on. The mind is capable of 
filling in the gaps which is what inferential thinking is all about. 

Josephine Hartmann, Reading Specialist and Consultant, TIE 

From Michelle Mehlberg 
From Michelle MehlbergFrom Michelle MehlbergFrom Michelle MehlbergFrom Michelle MehlbergFrom Michelle MehlbergSouth Dakota Reading First Director 
South Dakota Reading First DirectorSouth Dakota Reading First DirectorSouth Dakota Reading First DirectorSouth Dakota Reading First DirectorSouth Dakota Reading First Director

Every reader, if he has a strong mind, reads himself into the book, and amalgamates his thoughts 
with those of the author 

~Johann Wolfgang von Goethe~ 

G
G
ood readers interact with text without even realizing that they are doing it. Poor readers, on the 
other hand, often are unaware that this is what they are supposed to do. They read literally without 
bringing in prior knowledge. Reading comprehension can be affected by prior knowledge about the 
subject. Readers who possess rich prior knowledge about the topic of a reading often understand the 
reading better than classmates with low prior knowledge. It is critical that readers relate their world 
knowledge to the content of a text in order to make sense of what they are reading. 

Students use prior knowledge to make inferences about the text that they are reading. Inferences are 
evidence-based guesses. They are the conclusions a reader draws about the unsaid in a passage based on 
what is actually said by the author. Inferences drawn while reading are much like inferences drawn in 
everyday life. Students make inferences throughout their school day based on their peers physical 
appearance, actions, speech, or based on their teachers facial expressions, and body language. Students 
need to be taught how to transfer these skills and strategies to their interactions with text. 

Drawing inferences while reading requires willingness to look at the evidence and come to a 
conclusion that has not been expressed in words. Drawing inferences in everyday life requires the same 
skills. Only in reading, the evidence for inference consists solely on words rather than actual events, 
expressions, or gestures. 

To infer as students read is to go beyond literal interpretation and to open up a world of meaning 
that is deeply connected to their lives. When children read and comprehend text, a whole world opens 
up for them. In opening up the world, students learn to read with joy and understanding, learn and grow 
through reading, and read critically and thoughtfully. 

It can be a conclusion drawn after considering what is read in relation to ones beliefs, knowledge, 
and experience. Inference can be a critical analysis of a text: a mental or expressed argument 
with an author, an active skepticism about what is stated in the text, or recognition of propaganda. 
Inference is, in some situations, synonymous with learning and remembering. . . 

Mosaic of Thought, Keene & Zimmerman, 153 

4 



Traditional Cloze Technique 
Traditional Cloze TechniqueTraditional Cloze TechniqueTraditional Cloze TechniqueTraditional Cloze TechniqueTraditional Cloze Technique

B
B
ased upon the psychological theory of closure (Taylor, W.L. 1953), the cloze procedure was 
subsequently developed as a tool for many aspects of reading. The cloze theory suggests that 
a person attempts to complete any pattern that is not complete. Cloze procedure makes use of 
semantic (word meaning) and syntactic (word order or grammatical) clues to help a person infer 
or make educated guesses about the meanings of unknown words. A cloze activity can be easily 
created for any instructional level. 

Steps: 
Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps: 

1. Select a passage of about 250 words at the appropriate reading level or from the content text 
being studied. 
2. Include the first and second sentences in their entirety. 
3. Every fifth word is then deleted from the remainder of the passage and replaced with a line 
of fifteen spaces length. 
4. Proper nouns are not deleted if they are the fifth word; instead, the following (or sixth 
word) is deleted. 
5. The cloze procedure may be used to provide practice for students in deducing unknown 
vocabulary words in their reading. It provides an excellent demonstration of inferring 
vocabulary meanings from unfamiliar words. 
Adaptation: 
Adaptation:Adaptation:Adaptation:Adaptation:Adaptation: 

Cloze exercises may also be used to determine if a specific passage is of an appropriate reading 
level for the students who will be using it. In that case, the number of deleted words (or blanks) is 
divided by the number of blanks completed with the exact deleted word. 60% match means 
independent reading level; 40%  60% means instructional reading level; less than 40% match 
means frustration reading level. 


Sources 
SourcesSourcesSourcesSourcesSources 

Taylor, W.L. Cloze Procedure: A New Tool for Measuring Readability. Journalism Quarterly (1953): 
415-433. 

Miller, Wilma H. Activities and Materials for Improving Content Reading Skills. San Francisco: Jossey and 
Bass, 1999, 93-100. 

5 



Picture Book Inferences 
Picture Book InferencesPicture Book InferencesPicture Book InferencesPicture Book InferencesPicture Book Inferences

T
T
eachers of younger children frequently use picture books to teach both reading and thinking. 
However, there are thousands of picture books appropriate for much older readers. These 
books are valuable in teaching inferential thinking. 

As students complete the strategy, they rely on both pictures and texts to predict outcomes, infer 
ideas, and construct meaning for the story. The difference between prediction and inferring is 
that predictions are either confirmed or refuted by the end of the story. Inferences may remain 
unresolved by the ending. 

Steps: 
Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps: 

1. Select a book with illustrations that show moods as well as events. Covers and titles provide 
a good starting point. 
2. Ask students to look at the book cover and the title and ask what they can infer from what 
they see. 
3. Provide students with a Picture Book Inference Chart. 
 
As students learn the strategy have them practice by working in groups. 
 
Once most students are proficient at using the strategy, move them into pairs. 
 
As the process becomes routine, students will be able to work independently. 
4. Students use the chart as a framework for analyzing the text using the following column 
headings. (A sample template is provided on page 7.) 
 
Quote, Photo, Illustration 
 Inference Drawn 
 +, -, I 
5. When introducing the strategy, lead students through the initial pages of the picture book. 
Guide student thinking with questions that ask them to base their guesses on details from the 
text. 
6. Students record the information on the chart as the story develops. As students make 
predictions, make sure they can explain the text connection. Possible questions might 
include the following: 
 
How did you know? 
 
Why did you make that prediction? 
 
What made you think  would happen? 
7. When students have finished the book, they go back and complete the third column using 
a + to indicate predictions that were confirmed and a  if they are contradicted. 
Unresolved ideas are marked I to indicate that the idea is an unconfirmed inference. 
Suggestions/Adaptations: 
Suggestions/Adaptations:Suggestions/Adaptations:Suggestions/Adaptations:Suggestions/Adaptations:Suggestions/Adaptations: 

 
Once students have mastered the use of picture books to make inferences, progress to more 
difficult materials  magazine articles, textbook sections and chapters, novels, newspaper 
articles. 
 
When using more difficult texts without photographs or illustrations, ask students to make 
inferences from blocks or paragraphs of the text. Another option is to provide students with 
text quotations from which they can base their inferences. 
Sources: 

Harvey, Stephanie and Anne Goudvis Strategies That Work. Portland, ME: Stenhouse, 2000, 107-109. 
University of Texas System/Texas Education Agency. Meeting the Needs of Struggling Readers: A Resource 
for Secondary English Language Arts Teachers, 2003. 
Applying Question-Answer Relationship to Pictures. Read-Write-Think. IRA. 
<http://www.readwritethink.org/lesson_images/lesson370/booklist.pdf>. 

6 



Picture Book Inferences Chart 
Picture Book Inferences ChartPicture Book Inferences ChartPicture Book Inferences ChartPicture Book Inferences ChartPicture Book Inferences Chart

Picture/Illustration/Quote Inference + -I 
7 



30 Childrens Books for Making Inferences 
30 Childrens Books for Making Inferences30 Childrens Books for Making Inferences30 Childrens Books for Making Inferences30 Childrens Books for Making Inferences30 Childrens Books for Making Inferences

Aardema, Verna. Why Mosquitoes Buzz in Peoples Ears. New York: Scholastic, 1980. 

Abercrombie, Barbara. Charlie Anderson. New York: Alladin, 1995. 

Baylor, Byrd. The Table Where Rich People Sit. Alladin, 1994. 

Berger, Barbara. Grandfather Twilight. New York: Paperstar/Putnam, 1996. 

Bierman, Carol, and Barbara Hehner. Journey to Ellis Island. New York: Hyperion Books for 
Children, 1998. 

Blegvad, Lenore. Anna Banana and Me. New York: Alladin, 1985. 

Bunting, Eve. Dandelion, New York: Voyager, 2001. 

  . Smokey Night. San Diego: Harcourt Brace, 1994. 

  . The Wall. New York: Clarion, 1990. 

Clifton, Lucille. The Boy Who Didnt Believe in Spring. New York: Unicorn, 1988. 

Cohen, Caron Lee. The Mud Pony. New York: Scholastic, 1988. 

Cronin, Doreen. Duck for President. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004. 

Fleischman, Paul. Bull Run. New York: Scholastic, 1993. 

  . Dateline: Troy. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press, 1996. 

Fyleman, Rose. Fairy Went A-Marketing. New York: Puffin, 1992. 

Hazen, Barbara Shook. Tight Times. New York: Puffin, 1983. 

Hearne, Betsy. Seven Brave Women. New York: Greenwillow, 1997. 

Innocenti, Roberto. Rose Blanche. Mankato, MN: Creative Education, 2003. 

Kalman, Maira. Fireboat: The Heroic Adventures of the John J. Harvey. New York: Putnam 
Juvenile, 2002. 

Lewis, Paul Owen. The Jupiter Stone. Berkeley: Tricycle Press, 2003. 

Mitchell, Margaree King. Uncle Jeds Barbershop. New York: Scholastic, 1994. 

Osofsky, Audrey. Dreamcatcher. New York: Orchard, 1999. 

Stevens, Janet. Coyote Steals the Blanket. New York: Holiday House, 1993. 

Tsuchiya, Yukio. Faithful Elephants: A True Story of Animals, People, and War. Boston: 

Houston Mifflin, 1988. 
Van Allsburg, Chris. The Polar Express. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1985. 
  .The Stranger. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986. 
Viorst, Judith. Alexander, Who Used to Be Rich Last Sunday. New York: Alladin, 1988. 
Wiesner, David. Sector 7. New York: Clarion Books, 1999. 
Wyeth, Sharon Dennis. Something Beautiful. New York: Random House Childrens Books, 1998. 

8 



Inferring Feelings Game 
Inferring Feelings GameInferring Feelings GameInferring Feelings GameInferring Feelings GameInferring Feelings Game

T
T
he purpose of this activity is to introduce the notion of inferring to children. The activity 
also helps children clarify feelings. Although designed to work especially well with elementary-
aged students, the activity can be easily adapted for working with older students by using 
more complex emotions. For example, you might use sad with primary students, while with middle 
school students you might choose emotions like depressed, frustrated, or envious. 

Steps: 
Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps: 

1. Create a feelings chart that illustrates facial expressions associated with certain emotions 
happy, sad, angry, disappointed, frightened, frustrated, and so on. Students can devise the 
chart with the teacher. Post the chart where students can see it clearly. 
2. Design cards featuring each of the emotion words. Use one emotion per card. 
3. Ask for a student volunteer. Select one card and pin it on the volunteers back. Have the 
individual turn several times so everyone has an opportunity to see the card. The volunteer 
does not know which word has been assigned to him or her. 
4. When teaching the strategy, provide the first few clues until the class gets the hang of the 
process. Then ask, Who has a clue for Fred/Freda? 
5. Students begin clues with the phrase, I felt that way when. . . and complete the sentence 
with a description of a time when they experienced the emotion written on the card. 
6. When a half dozen students have shared their clues, ask, Okay, Fred/Freda, can you infer 
what the feeling is thats pinned on your back? 
7. If the student answers correctly, congratulate the student and ask the student how he or she 
figured out the answer. As students play this game more frequently, they clarify their own 
feelings and also learn to make better inferences. 
SADExample:Example:Example:Example:Example: 
I felt that way when 

 my cat got run over. 
 my brother hit me with a stick. 
 I couldnt go to the movies. 
 I dropped grape jelly on my best sweater, and my sweater stained. 
Sources: 
Sources:Sources:Sources:Sources:Sources: 

Allington, Richard L. The Schools We Have. The Schools We Need. The Reading Teacher 48 (1994): 
14-29. 

Harvey, Stephanie and Anne Goudvis. Strategies That Work. Portland, ME: Stenhouse, 2000 

9 



Pairs Read: Read to Analyze 
Pairs Read: Read to AnalyzePairs Read: Read to AnalyzePairs Read: Read to AnalyzePairs Read: Read to AnalyzePairs Read: Read to Analyze

P
P
aired reading is used in a variety of ways by teachers at all grade levels and content areas. 
When helping students develop their inference skills, teachers use the Pairs Read strategy to 
analyze text. No matter the ultimate goal of paired reading, the process used tends to follow a 
similar pattern: students work in pairs to study and create meaning from a block of text. 

Steps: 
Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps: 

1. Select a text selection for students to read in pairs. 
2. One student is the reader/responder while the other student takes on a coaching role. 
3. Each student silently reads the first paragraph. 
4. Allow students to discuss difficult ideas as they read. 
5. After reading, the reader/responder summarizes the paragraph by stating the main idea. The 
coaching partner asks what author Rachel Billmeyer calls clarifying, probing, and inferential 
questions (See Asking Inferential Questions, page 11). 
6. Students change roles and silently read the next text excerpt. Again, the reader/responder 
summarizes the main idea while the coaching partner asks probing questions. The students 
continue the process until the reading selection has been completed. 
7. Once the selection has been completed, ask students to work cooperatively to create the 
main idea for the entire selection. 
Source: 
Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: 

Billmeyer, Rachel. Strategies to Engage the Mind of the Learner: Building Strategic Readers. Omaha: 
Rachel & Associates, 2003, 81-82. 

10 



Asking Inferential Questions: Solving the Mystery 
Asking Inferential Questions: Solving the MysteryAsking Inferential Questions: Solving the MysteryAsking Inferential Questions: Solving the MysteryAsking Inferential Questions: Solving the MysteryAsking Inferential Questions: Solving the Mystery 

T
T
eacher says, Ask questions while you read. Student says, What do ya mean, ask questions? 
I dont have any questions. I dont get it. Because most teachers are skilled readers, we 
frequently forget that questions dont come naturally. Struggling students and students who lack 
the ability to make inferences, often have trouble coming up with questions. Since they are 
focusing all of their attention on creating meaning from a difficult text, they forget to pay attention 
to the thoughts crossing their minds. As a result, it is necessary for teachers to show students how 
to create questions and to understand what their minds are doing as they consider ideas for 
questions. 

Steps: 
Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps: 

1. Provide students with author Rachel Billmeyers following When I Question list from 
Strategies to Engage the Mind of the Learner. Explain to students that the list details the 
processes the mind undergoes as it formulates questions. 
2. Select a text and model or role play the process for students by showing them what you 
might do if you were trying to look for different outcomes in a text. 
3. When teaching the strategy, select a piece of high-interest text and assign pairs of 
students a verb to practice as they read the text. For example, Mystery Net 
(http://www.mysterynet.com) provides online mysteries for students to read and solve. 
The site includes specific mysteries written for younger readers. 
 
A pair of students assigned search, would read the mystery specifically searching for 
clues or details that might help them solve the problem. 
 
Students assigned the word doubt, might look for reasons to doubt the guilt or innocence 
of different characters. 
4. Allow students to play with the process and have fun with words. The goal is to teach them 
to question the obvious and look beyond the details provided by the author so they can draw 
conclusions. The process is more important to their learning at this point than coming up 
with the right solution. 
5. Rather than looking for a right answer, ask students to show what they might do or how 
they might behave if they were: 
 
quibbling about the meaning of a complicated text; 
 
doubting what the author was trying to say; 
 
exploring the possible solutions to a problem presented in the story; 
 
inquiring about what might happen next. 
When I question, I: 

 
search  challenge  doubt  inquire  seek information 
 
ask  quarrel with  quibble  probe 
 
investigate  examine  explore  dispute 
Additionally, Billmeyer suggests that young readers learning how to make inferences should ask 
themselves the following questions as they read: 

 
What questions do I have about the topic?  What did the author mean. . .? 
 
What was I thinking as I read the material?  What clues from the story/passage help 
 
What was the big idea from this story/passage? me understand the meaning? 
Sources: 
Sources:Sources:Sources:Sources:Sources: 

Billmeyer, Rachel. Strategies to Engage the Mind of the Learner: Building Strategic Learners. Omaha: 
Rachel & Associates, 2003, 100-101. 

Learning with Mysteries: The Fun Way to Learn in the Classroom. Mystery Net: The Online MysteryNetwork. 14 January 2006 <http://www.mysterynet.com/learn/>. 

Preszler, June. TIE Education Specialist and Reading Consultant. 

11 



Five-Minute Skill Builders 
Five-Minute Skill BuildersFive-Minute Skill BuildersFive-Minute Skill BuildersFive-Minute Skill BuildersFive-Minute Skill Builders

H 
H 
elp students make inferring a habit of mind by quick and easymaybe even funpractice. 
Five-Minute Skill Builders encourage students to practice their skills at making inferences. 
These activities turn inference making into game playing. While students are enjoying themselves, 
they are also developing and honing their skills in making inferences. 

Skill Builder Options: 
Skill Builder Options:Skill Builder Options:Skill Builder Options:Skill Builder Options:Skill Builder Options: 

1. Each day, read a short passage out loud using the Think-Aloud (See On Target: Reading 
Strategies to Guide Learning, page 12) to share your inferences. Have students decide 
what kinds of inferences you are making. (Reference the 13-point list on the following 
page.) The selections can be short passages from a literature book, a magazine, or a novel 
you are reading. Author Kylene Beers recommends Two Minute Mysteries by Donald Sobol 
and Five Minute Mysteries and Even More Five Minute Mysteries by Ken Weber. Make 
sure your selection offers opportunities for drawing inferences. 
2. Cut out cartoons from a newspaper and put them onto transparencies or a PowerPoint. 
Read the words aloud, and then Think-Aloud the inferences you make in order to make life 
connections with the cartoon. Encourage students to cut out their own cartoons and bring 
them to school. You might also ask students to bring in cartoons they dont understand. 
This activity spurs a discussion on how inferencing doesnt work if a person doesnt have 
the right background information. Students usually bring political cartoons for this extended 
activity. 
3. Show students bumper stickers or signs and have students write what goes on in their heads 
as they read as opposed to the text that actually appears on the bumper sticker. Students 
should be able to state the authors implied meaning as opposed to the literal meaning. 
Students can refer to the list of inferences and identify which kind of inference they made. 
Below are bumper sticker examples: 
 The early bird gets the worm, but the second mouse gets the cheese. 
 Wear short sleeves. Support your right to bare arms. 
 Reality is for people with no imagination. 
 We have enough youth. How about a fountain of smart? 
 The more people I meet, the more I like my dog. 
4. Pull some passages from your text and then put them on overhead transparencies and 
perform a Harry Potter magic trick on them. As you read the text and Think-Aloud your 
inferences, mark up the passage to link the clues that helped you infer the meaning. Link 
pronouns to their related nouns. Link context that helped define unknown words. Show 
how you added details to help you picture events described in your passage. 
Sources: 
Sources:Sources:Sources:Sources:Sources: 

Beers, Kylene. When Kids Cant Read: What Teachers Can Do: A Guide for Teachers 6-12. Portsmouth, 
NH: Heinemann, 2003, 69-72. 

Weaver, Constance, and Lorraine Gillmeister-Krause, Grace Vento-Zogby. Creating Support for Effective 
Literacy Education: Workshop Materials and Handouts. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1997. 

12 



Inferences That Skilled Readers Make 
Inferences That Skilled Readers MakeInferences That Skilled Readers MakeInferences That Skilled Readers MakeInferences That Skilled Readers MakeInferences That Skilled Readers Make

n When Kids Cant Read, What Teachers Can Do, author Kylene Beers identifies 13 types of 
inferences that skilled readers make as they read. She recommends that teachers and students 

add to the list as they monitor their reading. 

1. Recognize pronoun antecedents 
2. Use context clues to figure out the meanings of unknown words 
3. Understand the grammatical role of unknown words 
4. Recognize character tone 
5. Identify the beliefs, personalities, and motivations of characters 
6. Understand character relationships 
7. Provide setting details 
8. Provide explanations for events and ideas in the text 
9. Offer details or their own explanations of events in the text 
10. Understand the authors point of view 
11. Recognize the authors bias 
12. Relate the text to events in their own lives 
13. Construct conclusions based from the facts in the text 
Skilled Reader Example: 
Skilled Reader Example:Skilled Reader Example:Skilled Reader Example:Skilled Reader Example:Skilled Reader Example: 

The pronoun doesnt 
have an antecedent, but 
she must be important 
to the action. 
The story must take 
place at a basketball 
game. 
She is getting ready to 
shoot. 
The 
game 
must 
be 
nearly 
over. 
She looked up at the basketball hoop. Slowly, she dribbled the ball, 
dreading the moment when she would have to take the shot. 
She remembered the last time she stood on the line. Just like 
tonight, the games outcome depended upon her. Last time, she failed. 
Her teammates watched anxiously. She took a deep breath; let go of 
the ball; watched its arch. Swoosh! 
The other players dont 
expect her to make the 
basket. 
She made the freethrow; her team wonthe game!

She must be 
shooting from the 
free throw. 
The last time, 
she missed the 
shot; her team 
lost the game. 
Source: 
Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: 

Beers, Kylene. When Kids Cant Read, What Teachers Can Do: A Guide for Teachers 6-12. 
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2003, 63-65. 

13 



Show but Dont Tell 
Show but Dont TellShow but Dont TellShow but Dont TellShow but Dont TellShow but Dont Tell

W
W
hen it comes to making inferences, students tend to be more successful if they can 
recognize that inferring is linked to hunting down clues and finding solutions. Jeff Zweirs, 
author of Building Reading Comprehension Habits in Grades 6-12, suggests the following 
activity to give students much-needed practice in using clues to find meaning. 

Steps: 
Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps: 

1. Bring interesting objects into the classroom. Look for objects that would not be part of a 
students daily life. For example, students have probably gone to the dentist, but they might 
not recognize some of the medical tools a dental hygienist would use. 
2. Show the object and have students think silently about what the object is and what it might 
be used for. 
3. Have students work in pairs to discuss their inferences. 
4. Share as a class. 
5. Use a two-column chart. Label columns as Guesses and Reasons for Guesses. (An example 
template is provided on the following page.) 
6. Add a related item. For example, provide students with another item that might be found in 
a dentists office. Have students use the new clue to make another guess as to what the 
items are used for and who might use the items. 
7. As students guess, remember to ask them to justify their guesses. What about this item 
makes them think it is used for a certain purpose? Remind students that the process they 
use to draw conclusions is a process called inferring. 
Source: 

Zwiers, Jeff. Building Reading Comprehension Habits in Grades 6-12. Newark, DE: International Reading 
Association, 2004, 93. 

14 



Show but Dont Tell Template 
Show but Dont Tell TemplateShow but Dont Tell TemplateShow but Dont Tell TemplateShow but Dont Tell TemplateShow but Dont Tell Template

GuessesGuessesGuessesGuessesGuesses Reasons for GuessesReasons for GuessesReasons for GuessesReasons for GuessesReasons for Guesses 
15 



Observe to Infer 
Observe to InferObserve to InferObserve to InferObserve to InferObserve to Infer

W
W
hen students make observations, they look at the details and the factual 
information provided in a text. When they make inferences, they 
combine their observations with their own background knowledge and 
experiences to create new meaning. One way to help students become skilled 
at the process of making inferences is through the use of photographs or pieces 
of art. 


Observations = details, factual information, non-debatable 

Inferences = conclusions drawn from factual information that could 
include experiences, images, words, numbers; plausible based upon 
careful thought and knowledge about the world; directly connect to 
the observations of facts and details 

Steps: 
Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps: 

1. Select an appropriate piece of art or photograph. Before students work independently, they 
should practice the strategy in cooperative learning groups or pairs. 
2. Ask students to observe the details of the picture. What can they see? Details are not to be 
argued. They either exist or they dont. Students record details on the first column of the 
Observe to Infer Chart (page 17). 
3. After theyve recorded details, students should make inferences and write them in the 
second column. 
4. Share inferences with other students explaining why they made the inferences. At this 
stage, it is important that students can identify how the inference is directly connected 
to the details they observed. 
5. As students become more skilled in the process, move from photographs and art to 
newspaper and magazine articles, excerpts from literary works, and content area textbook 
readings. 
Source 
SourceSourceSourceSourceSource 

Drawing Inferences: Observations and Inferences. 1999. 14 Jan. 2006. 
<http://home.comcast.net/~lukeythetruck/djole/SchoolPage/99/Presentations/DrawInfer.htm>. 

16 



Observe to Infer Template 
Observe to Infer TemplateObserve to Infer TemplateObserve to Infer TemplateObserve to Infer TemplateObserve to Infer Template

Details 
DetailsDetailsDetailsDetailsDetails 

Inferences 
InferencesInferencesInferencesInferencesInferences 

17 



Making Inferences with Figurative Language 
Making Inferences with Figurative LanguageMaking Inferences with Figurative LanguageMaking Inferences with Figurative LanguageMaking Inferences with Figurative LanguageMaking Inferences with Figurative Language

A key form of inference is interpreting figurative language. Readers must have 
a strong base of figurative experiences to be able to independently generate 
figurative ideas. Songs are the best places to start for many students. . . Analogies 
and fables can work as well. 
Jeff Zwiers, Building Reading Comprehension 
Habits in Grades 6-23, 83 
W
W
hile generally associated with literature, figurative language is not exclusive to that genre. 
Wherever it is encountered, students seem to find it difficult to comprehend. This is 
dumb! is frequently heard in the classroom as students struggle to figure out what the author 
means. 

Although figurative language doesnt necessarily cause students to make inferences, the ability to 
infer does help students construct meaning from the figurative language that they find in academic 
reading and testing situations. 

Some Types of Figures of Speech that May Cause Difficulty Are: 
Simile 


a comparison using like or as 

Metaphor

 a direct comparison without using the words like or as 

Personification 

giving the attributes of a person to an inanimate object or abstract idea 

Authors often attempt to describe something by comparing it to an experience common to most 
people. 

1. In a simile, the words like or as serve as a link between the familiar and the unfamiliar. 
Students can then make a comparison between the two things. For example, in the phrase 
She is like a tank, the comparison could show size, mode of movement, temperament, or 
general shape. The reader would need to consider the surrounding text in order to infer the 
authors intent. 
2. In a metaphor, the comparison is made without using the word like or as. She is a 
regular tank. The comparison remains the same; it links the familiar to the unfamiliar. 
3. In personification, the author might write: The tank huffed and puffed as it crawled up 
the hill. Tanks dont huff and puff or crawl; people do. However, when making the 
comparison by giving the vehicle human traits, the author helps the reader understand/infer 
how the tank moved. 
18 



Making Inferences with Figurative Language (cont.) 
Making Inferences with Figurative Language (cont.)Making Inferences with Figurative Language (cont.)Making Inferences with Figurative Language (cont.)Making Inferences with Figurative Language (cont.)Making Inferences with Figurative Language (cont.) 

In testing situations, questions focusing on figurative language usually come in one of two formats. 

 
Identifying the example of figurative language 
 
Interpreting the meaning of the figurative language example. In order for readers to 
comprehend the meaning, they often are required to use context clues and to make 
inferences based on the surrounding text. 
Example: Like a tank, the old woman made her way up the hill, stopping frequently to rest or 
pick a wildflower. She huffed and puffed, sometimes seeming to crawl. 

Example of figurative language: like a tank 
Based on the text, the reader can infer that in this case the comparison of woman to tank isnt a 
comparison of size or shape. Rather the reference refers to how the woman movedin a manner 
similar to the slow-going speed of a tank. 


Sources: 
Sources:Sources:Sources:Sources:Sources: 

Jo Hartmann, Reading Specialist and TIE Consultant 
Zwiers, Jeff. Building Reading Comprehension Habits in Grades 6-12. Newark, DE: IRA, 2004, 83. 


19 



Inference Chart 
Inference ChartInference ChartInference ChartInference ChartInference Chart

I 
I 
nference Charts encourage students to formulate questions prior to reading material. The 
following strategy, adapted from Great Source Education Groups Readers Handbook, 
reinforces the concept that readers have to figure things out for themselves. Frequently, the 
figuring requires readers to put two and two together and read between the lines. In other 
words, readers need to connect what they learned from reading with what they already know. 
When that happens, readers are able to make inferences. 

What I learn from reading + What I already know = What I infer 
Steps: 
Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps: 

1. Provide students with a high interest magazine or newspaper article and an Inference Chart. 
(page 21). 
2. Model and practice with students by first looking at the photographs and title of the article. 
Suggest possible questions and ask students for their ideas. Write the questions in the left-
hand column. 
3. Begin reading the text aloud to students, stopping to ask additional questions as you read. 
Write the questions in the left-hand column. As you and students continue to read, write 
answers to your questions when they become apparent. When first modeling the process 
with a piece of text, provide students with possible questions from each paragraph or 
section. 
4. After practicing the strategy together, move students toward working independently. 
5. Encourage students to create or use an Inference Chart whenever they are reading texts that 
require them to make predictions and draw conclusions based on the text and their own 
experience. 
Adaptations: 
Adaptations:Adaptations:Adaptations:Adaptations:Adaptations: 

 
Instead of writing questions in the left-hand column, write quotes, specific details, or events 
from the reading. Students then draw conclusions about the meanings of those quotes, 
details, or events. 
Source: 
Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: 

Robb, Laura, and Margaret Ann Richek, Vicki Spandel. Readers Handbook: A Student Guide for Reading 
and Learning. Wilmington, MA: Great Source Education Group, 2002, 136-37, 447-48, 550. 

20 



Inference Chart Template 
Inference Chart TemplateInference Chart TemplateInference Chart TemplateInference Chart TemplateInference Chart Template

Questions 
QuestionsQuestionsQuestionsQuestionsQuestions 

My Conclusions 
My ConclusionsMy ConclusionsMy ConclusionsMy ConclusionsMy Conclusions 

21 



It Says. . . I Say. . . And So 
It Says. . . I Say. . . And SoIt Says. . . I Say. . . And SoIt Says. . . I Say. . . And SoIt Says. . . I Say. . . And SoIt Says. . . I Say. . . And So

I
I
t Says. . .I Say. . .And So is a reading strategy that requires students to consider questions 
linked to textual material, find information in the text that responds to the question, interpret 
the text using inference skills, and combine the information from the text and their own thinking to 
create an answer. The strategy encourages students to realize that when they create meaning, they 
combine their own ideas and thoughts with evidence and details that they find within a reading 
selection. The strategy works well with nonfiction and fiction texts. 

Steps: 
Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps: 

1. The strategy works best when a teacher has spent time modeling the process prior to 
applying it to content material. Consider using a short and familiar text to teach the strategy. 
Teachers who use the strategy suggest beginning with fairy tales, folk lore, or legends. After 
modeling the strategy, apply it to a relevant piece of content area text. 
2. Provide students with a copy of the It Says strategy chart (page 23). 
3. Brainstorm possible questions based on the topic to be read. (In the beginning, you may 
choose to actually provide the questions. Sometimes questions found at the end of textbook 
reading selections are appropriate. As students move toward a more independent level, they 
should be able to create their own questions.) 
4. Consider allowing students to work in groups as they learn the strategy. 
5. Students follow the steps in the sample chart (see below): 
QUESTION IT SAYS I SAY AND SO 
Read the question. 
Find information 
from the text to 
help answer 
each question 
paraphrase or quote 
answers from text. 
Consider what you 
know about the 
information. 
Put together the 
information from 
the text with what 
you know, then 
answer the 
question. 

22 



It Says Template 
It Says TemplateIt Says TemplateIt Says TemplateIt Says TemplateIt Says Template

FIRES IN THE BLACK HILLS CHART 
FIRES IN THE BLACK HILLS CHARTFIRES IN THE BLACK HILLS CHARTFIRES IN THE BLACK HILLS CHARTFIRES IN THE BLACK HILLS CHARTFIRES IN THE BLACK HILLS CHART

QUESTION IT SAYS I SAY AND SO 
Why are forest fires 
on the increase in the 
Black Hills of South 
Dakota? 
For the last several 
years, precipitation 
amounts from 
snowfall have 
decreased. 
Less snowfall 
could mean dry 
conditions 
throughout the 
Black Hills. 
Dry conditions 
resulting from a 
decrease in 
precipitation lead 
to conditions that 
might make fires 
more likely to 
occur. 

IT SAYS. . .I SAY. . .AND SO 
IT SAYS. . .I SAY. . .AND SOIT SAYS. . .I SAY. . .AND SOIT SAYS. . .I SAY. . .AND SOIT SAYS. . .I SAY. . .AND SOIT SAYS. . .I SAY. . .AND SO

QUESTION IT SAYS I SAY AND SO 

Sources: 

Beers, Kylene. Reading Strategies Handbook. Austin, TX: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1998, 165-166. 

Extra! Extra! Learn All about It: Teaching with Colorados Historic Newspapers. 
ELA/Department for Learning and Educational Achievement, Jefferson County Public Schools, Golden, 
CO. 23 January 2006 <http://www.cal-webs.org/handouts05/CHNP_4.doc>. 

Teaching with Colorados Heritage: Using Documents and Texts with Students. Colorado Digitization 
Program (CDP), Denver. 23 Jan. 2006 <http://www.cdpheritage.org/educator/Blackboard/textclass.html>. 
Zwiers, Jeff. Building Reading Comprehension Habits in Grades 6-12: A Toolkit of Classroom 
Activities. Newark, DE: IRA, 2002. 

23 



Questioning the Author (QtA) 
Questioning the Author (QtA)Questioning the Author (QtA)Questioning the Author (QtA)Questioning the Author (QtA)Questioning the Author (QtA)

Q
Q
uestioning the Author is a strategy that gets students in the habit of thinking about what the 
author is saying beyond the words that actually appear in the text. The strategy requires 
students to consider the authors intent. Questioning the Author is similar to, but slightly more 
demanding of students, than the Inference Chart strategy, pages 20 and 21. 

While the strategy does increase a students inferring skills, it also helps students recognize 
that sometimes a text is difficult to comprehend simply because the author did not provide the 
necessary information needed for readers. McKeown, Beck, and Worthy found that students 
become more successful readers when they realize that their inability to understand a text may 
be linked to the authors flaws as a writer. Instead of looking at themselves as failed readers, 
students begin to approach text with what McKeown, Beck, and Worthy define as the revisers 
eye. As a result, the students infer meanings and actively make text more understandable. 

Once again, this strategy should be modeled by the teacher, then practiced by students in pairs or 
groups before students independently tackle the strategy. 

Steps: 
Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps: 

1. Select text for students to read. Consider modeling the strategy first with a newspaper 
clipping or magazine article prior to applying the strategy to content curriculum. Raymond 
Jones, creator of Reading Quest strategies, provides a sample practice text at the following 
web site: http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/readquest/strat/qta.html 
2. Begin with five basic questions. Students read a selection of text and then answer these 
questions: 
 What is the author trying to tell you? 
 Why is the author telling you that? 
 Is it said clearly? 
 How might the author have written it more clearly? 
 What would you have wanted to say instead? 
3. Direct students to fill in the template. Share and discuss student responses and differing 
conclusions among the readers. 
24 



Questioning the Author Template 
Questioning the Author TemplateQuestioning the Author TemplateQuestioning the Author TemplateQuestioning the Author TemplateQuestioning the Author Template

Adaptations: 
Adaptations:Adaptations:Adaptations:Adaptations:Adaptations: 

 
Keep the text selections small. Do not try to cover too much text with this strategy. 
Consider chunking a larger piece of text and assign different sections for students to 
Question the Author. 
 
List the QtA questions on a poster in a the classroom. 
 
As students become more skilled at making inferences, consider adding the following 
questions, suggested by author Doug Buehl in Classroom Strategies for Interactive 
Learning. 
 
Does this follow with what the author said before? 
 
What does the author take for granted that we already know? 
 
Did the author tell us why? 
 
Why do you think the author included this information? 
TEXT SELECTION 
TEXT SELECTIONTEXT SELECTIONTEXT SELECTIONTEXT SELECTIONTEXT SELECTION

What is the author trying to tell 
you? 
Why is the author telling you that? 
Is it said clearly? 
How might the author have 
written it more clearly? 
What would you have wanted to 
say instead? 
(http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/readquest/strat/qta.html) 

Sources: 
Sources:Sources:Sources:Sources:Sources: 

Buehl, Doug. Classroom Strategies for Interactive Learning. Newark, DE: IRA, 2001, 112-113. 
Jones, Raymond. Questioning the Author. 7 Nov. 2001. ReadingQuest.org. 14 Jan. 2006 
< http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/readquest/strat/qta.html>. 
McKeown, M.G. and I.L. Beck and M.J. Worthy. Grappling with Text Ideas: Questioning the Author. 
The Reading Teacher 47 (1993): 560-66.

25 



Inferences through Advertising 
Inferences through AdvertisingInferences through AdvertisingInferences through AdvertisingInferences through AdvertisingInferences through Advertising

U
U
sing magazine and newspaper ads, this activity requires students to analyze the inferences 
businesses expect us to make about their products. By using media to practice inference 
skills, students become better prepared to transfer these skills to academic reading in the 
classroom and on standardized tests. 

Steps: 
Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps:Steps: 

1. Choose an ad. 
2. Show the students just the clever saying on an overhead, without the picture. 
3. Ask students what they think it means. 
4. Show the full ad with the picture and ask students its meaning. 
5. Ask students what background knowledge the reader has to know in order to understand 
the ad or to think it is clever. 
6. Ask why the writers thought they could sell their product this way. 
7. Make a chart with three boxes on the left side and one box on the right. Illustrate how the 
three components of: Saying, Picture, and Background Knowledge all feed into the final 
INFERENCE that the ad designers expect us to make. 
8. Once students have practiced the strategy, ask them to select their own ads and then lead 
cooperative learning groups in the process. 
Source: 
Source:Source:Source:Source:Source: 

Zwiers, Jeff. Building Reading Comprehension Habits in Grades 6-12. Newark, DE: International Reading 
Association, 2004, 89-90. 

26 



Inferences through Advertising Template 
Inferences through Advertising TemplateInferences through Advertising TemplateInferences through Advertising TemplateInferences through Advertising TemplateInferences through Advertising Template

Inferences through 
Inferences throughInferences throughInferences throughInferences throughInferences through 
Advertising 
AdvertisingAdvertisingAdvertisingAdvertisingAdvertising

The Saying 
The SayingThe SayingThe SayingThe SayingThe Saying 

The 
TheTheTheTheThe 

The Picture 
The PictureThe PictureThe PictureThe PictureThe Picture 

Inference 
InferenceInferenceInferenceInferenceInference 

Background 
BackgroundBackgroundBackgroundBackgroundBackground 


Knowledge 
KnowledgeKnowledgeKnowledgeKnowledgeKnowledge

Inferences throughInferences throughInferences throughInferences throughInferences through 
AdvertisingAdvertisingAdvertisingAdvertisingAdvertising 
27 



Connections to Previous 
Connections to PreviousConnections to PreviousConnections to PreviousConnections to PreviousConnections to Previous On Target
On TargetOn TargetOn TargetOn TargetOn Target Books 
BooksBooksBooksBooksBooks

T
T
he ability to make inferences is a skill exhibited by good readers. As a result, several of the 
strategies addressed in previous On Target booklets encouraged students to practice making 
inferences. Listed below are strategies requiring inferential thinking that appeared in previous 
booklets. 

On Target: Strategies to Guide Student Learning 
On Target: Strategies to Guide Student LearningOn Target: Strategies to Guide Student LearningOn Target: Strategies to Guide Student LearningOn Target: Strategies to Guide Student LearningOn Target: Strategies to Guide Student Learning 

Think-Alouds, Pages 12-13 

Teachers share the thoughts that go through their heads as they read. By modeling the process, 
instructors help students learn how to formulate questions and extend their thinking. 

Save the Last Word for Me, Page 23 

Save the Last Word for Me provides a framework for students to review materials. The discussion 
encourages students to share ideas and opinionsthus promoting inferential thinking because 
students go beyond the literal text. 

On Target: Strategies to Improve Student Test Scores 
On Target: Strategies to Improve Student Test ScoresOn Target: Strategies to Improve Student Test ScoresOn Target: Strategies to Improve Student Test ScoresOn Target: Strategies to Improve Student Test ScoresOn Target: Strategies to Improve Student Test Scores 

Question-Answer Relationships (QAR), Pages 15-17 

Question  Answer Relationships (QAR) increase student comprehension. Students recognize 
different types of questions posed by a texttypically, questions are either in my head or in 
the book. Since the strategy helps students take information gleaned from the text and connect it 
with their own life experiences, the process increases the students abilities to make inferences. 

Solving Word Problems, Page 21 

When students solve world problems they must ask themselves three questions: What am I being 
asked to find? What information do I need in order to find the answer? What clues or information 
is given within the problem to help me solve it? When students look for clues and use them to find 
a solution, students are also making inferences. 

On Target: Strategies to Help Struggling Readers 
On Target: Strategies to Help Struggling ReadersOn Target: Strategies to Help Struggling ReadersOn Target: Strategies to Help Struggling ReadersOn Target: Strategies to Help Struggling ReadersOn Target: Strategies to Help Struggling Readers 

Book Cover Predictions, Page 9 

Book Cover Predictions requires students to make predictions based on the cover of a book. 
When students make predictions they ask questions and base answers on clues in the picture or 
illustration. 

Main Idea Record, Pages 12-13 

The Main Idea Record teaches students how to determine the main idea of a section, to make 
predictions, and to evaluate their predictionsall skills closely linked to inferential thinking. 

Reciprocal Teaching, Page 17 

Reciprocal Teaching provides students with an opportunity to discuss texts and to hone their skills 
as readers. The process includes four steps: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. 

28 



Websites to Explore 
Websites to ExploreWebsites to ExploreWebsites to ExploreWebsites to ExploreWebsites to Explore

Baltimore County Public Schools: Analyzing, Evaluating, Interpreting, Inferring 

http://www.bcps.org/offices/lis/models/tips/analyzing.htm 

Best Practices Reading Strategies from Annenburg Media and Journey North 

http://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/ReadStrats_20Best.html 

Eagle Crest Kids Read for Meaning 

http://www.stvrain.k12.co.us/ecel/read_for_meaning.html 

English Companion with Educator/Author Jim Burke 

http://www.englishcompanion.com 

Florida Online Reading Professional Development 

http://www.itrc.ucf.edu/forpd/strategies/archive.html 

Learning with Mysteries: The Fun Way to Learn in the Classroom. Mystery Net: The Online 
Mystery Network 

http://www.mysterynet.com/learn/ 

Oswego City School District 

http://www.oswego.org/testprep/ela4/o/makinginferencel.cfm 

Powerhouse Reading Strategies 

http://www.ncwiseowl.org/kscope/techknowpark/Tutorial/ReadingStratgs.html 

Quentin Blakes Books 

http://www.quentinblake.com 

Read*Write*Think (Sponsored by the International Reading Assn., National Council of Teachers 
of English and MarcoPolo) 

http://www.readwritethink.org/ 

Reading Lady 

http://www.readinglady.com 

Reading Strategies: An Internet Hotlist on Reading Strategies 

http://www.kn.pacbell.com/wired/fil/pages/listreadingst2.html 

Reading Strategies: Scaffolding Students Interactions with Texts 

http://www.greece.k12.ny.us/instruction/ela/6-12/reading/Reading%20Strategies/ 
reading%20strategies%20index.htm 

Reading Workshop: Reading Is a Strategic Thinking ProcessInferring 

http://www.springfield.k12.il.us/resources/languagearts/readingwriting/readinfer.html 

Technology Integration for Strategies that Work 

http://www.mayer.cps.k12.il.us/Strategies_that_Work/STW.htm 

29 



Books for Further Reading 
Books for Further ReadingBooks for Further ReadingBooks for Further ReadingBooks for Further ReadingBooks for Further Reading

Allen, Janet. Tools for Teaching Content Literacy. Portland, ME: Stenhouse, 2004. 

Beck, Isabel L, and Margaret G. McKeown, Rebecca L. Hamilton, Linda Kucan. 

Questioning the Author: An Approach for Enhancing Student Engagement with Text. Newark, 

DE: IRA, 1997. 

Beers, Kylene. When Kids Cant Read, What Teachers Can Do: A Guide for Teachers 6-12. 
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2003. 

Billmeyer, Rachel, and Mary Lee Barton. Teaching Reading in the Content Areas: If Not Me, 
Then Who? Aurora, CO: McRel, 1998. 

Billmeyer, Rachel. Strategies to Engage the Mind of the Learner: Building Strategic Readers. 
Omaha: Rachel and Associates, 2003. 

Buehl, Doug. Classroom Strategies for Interactive Learning. Newark, DE: IRA, 2003. 

Burke, Jim. Tools for Thought: Helping All Students Read, Write, Speak, and Think. 
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2002. 

Cecil, Nancy Lee. The Art of Inquiry: Questioning Strategies for K-6 Classroom. 
Winnipeg: Peguis, 1995. 

Daniels, Harvey, and Steven Zemelman. Subjects Matter: Every Teachers Guide to Content-Area 
Reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2004. 

Duffy, Gerald. Explaining Reading: A Resource for Teaching Concepts, Skills, and Strategies. 
New York: Guilford, 2003. 

Fountas, Irene C., and Gay Su Pinnell. Guiding Readers and Writers, Grades 3-6: 
Teaching Comprehesion, Genre, and Content Literacy. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2001. 

Hall, Dorothy P., and Patricia Cunningham, James Cunningham. Guided Reading The Four-
Blocks Way. Kansas City: Midpoint Trade Books, 2002. 

Harvey, Stephanie, and Anne Goudvis. Strategies to Improve Student Comprehension and 
Motivation. Portland, ME: Stenhouse, 2000. 

Hoyt, Linda. Make It Real: Strategies for Success with Informational Texts. Portsmouth, NH: 
Heinemann, 2002. 

Keene, Elvin Oliver, and Susan Zimmerman. Mosaic of Thought. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 
1997. 

Jones, Darolyn E. Painless Reading Comprehension (Painless Series). Hauppauge, NY: 
Barrons Educational Series, 2004. 

Lenski, Susan Davis., and Mary Ann Wham, Jerry L. Johns. Reading and Learning Strategies for 
Middle and High School Students. Dubuque, IO: Kendall/Hunt, 1999. 

30 



For Further Reading (cont.) 
For Further Reading (cont.)For Further Reading (cont.)For Further Reading (cont.)For Further Reading (cont.)For Further Reading (cont.)

Miller, Debbie. Reading with Meaning: Teaching Comprehension Skills in the Primary Grades. 
Portland, ME: Stenhouse, 2002. 

Miller, Wilma H. Ready to Use Activities and Materials for Improving Content Reading Skills: 
San Francisco, CA. Jossey and Bass, 1999. 

Nickelsen, LeAnn, and Sarah Glasscock. Comprehension Mini-Lessons: Inferences and Cause 
and Effect. New York: Scholastic Teaching Resources, 2004. 

Oczkus, Lori D. Reciprocal Teaching At Work: Strategies for Improving Reading 
Comprehension. Newark, DE: IRA, 2003. 

Robb, Laura, and Margaret Ann Richek, Vicki Spandel. Readers Handbook: A Student Guide for 
Reading and Learning. Wilmington, MA: Great Source Education Group, 2002. 

Tovani, Cris. I Read It, But I Dont Get It: Comprehension Strategies for Adolescent Readers. 
Portland, ME: Stenhouse, 2000. 

Zimmerman, Susan. 7 Keys to Comprehension: How to Help Your Kids Read It and Get It! 
New York: Three Rivers Press, 2003. 

Zwiers, Jeff. Building Reading Comprehension Habits in Grades 6-12. Newark, DE: 
International Reading Association, 2004. 


31 



ESA Region 6 

Serving schools in southcentral 
South Dakota. . . 

Agar-Blunt-Onida 
Harold 
Lyman 
Pierre 
Stanley County 


Education Specialist: Craig DeTample 

cdetample@tie.net 605-224-6287 

Jones County 
Midland 
Winner 
White River 
Wood 


Education Specialist: Roxanne Everhard 

reverhard@tie.net 605-669-3279 

Bennett County 

Todd County (11 schools) 
Education Specialist: Lucy Atwood 
latwood@tcsdk12.org 605-856-2151 

Kadoka 
Education Specialist: Julie Mathiesen 
jmathiesen@tie.net 605-394-1876 

Program Director 

Sandra Gaspar 

sgaspar@tie.net 605-394-1876 

Co-Director 

Micky Wienk 

mwienk@tie.net 605-394-1876 

Executive Director 

Randy Morris 

605-347-4467 

ESA 6 & 7 
ESA 6 & 7ESA 6 & 7ESA 6 & 7ESA 6 & 7ESA 6 & 7

ESA Region 7 

Serving schools in the Black Hills area of 
South Dakota. . . 

Northern Hills Area 

Belle Fourche 
Lead-Deadwood 
Newell 
Spearfish 


Education Specialist: Pam Lange 
plange@tie.net 605-394-1876 

Haakon 

Meade 
Education Specialist: Micky Wienk 
mwienk@tie.net 605-394-1876 

Central Hills Area 

Douglas 

Rapid City 
Education Specialist: June Preszler 
jpreszler@tie.net 605-394-1876 

Southern Hills Area 

Custer 
Edgemont 
Elk Mountain 
Hill City 
Hot Springs 
Oelrichs 


Education Specialist: Debbie ODoan 
dodoan@tie.net 605-394-1876 

Shannon County 
Education Specialist: Sandy Gaspar 
sgaspar@tie.net 605-394-1876 

New Underwood 
Shannon County 
Wall 


Education Specialist: Julie Mathiesen 
jmathiesen@tie.net 605-394-1876 

Program Director 

Sandra Gaspar 

sgaspar@tie.net 605-394-1876 

Executive Director 

Randy Morris 

605-347-4467 


